Philosophical Thought
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About GMJ Medicine
GMJ Medicine is an open-access, online, peer-reviewed journal that has been published by the Afarand Scholarly Publishing Institute in Germany since 2017. The new series of the journal started publishing in January 2021. The publication frequency of GMJ Medicine is Quarterly (4 issues per year).
All research articles submitted to GMJ Medicine should be original in nature, never previously published in any journal or undergoing such process across the globe. All the submissions will be peer-reviewed by the panel of experts associated with a particular field.
All research articles submitted to GMJ Medicine should be original in nature, never previously published in any journal or undergoing such process across the globe. All the submissions will be peer-reviewed by the panel of experts associated with a particular field.
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Articles
Critique of Paul Horwich's Interpretation of Later Wittgenstein's Metaphilosophy: The Challenge between Pure Description and Theoretical Structure
Ghorbanian H.M., Moeini Sh.
Late Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophy, with its emphasis on the central role of language in generating and resolving philosophical misunderstandings, offers a metaphilosophical approach that moves philosophy away from its traditional theoretical mode and transforms it into an essentially descriptive, therapeutic, and anti-theoretical activity. Paul Horwich, in Wittgenstein’s Metaphilosophy (2013), proposes an eight-step project in which traditional philosophical problems are identified as pseudo-problems, and Wittgenstein’s therapeutic solution is reinterpreted. The central question is to what extent Horwich’s reinterpretation is consistent with Wittgenstein’s purely descriptive and anti-theoretical spirit. The findings indicate that Horwich is notably successful in emphasizing the role of language, defending anti-theoretical philosophy, and clarifying its therapeutic dimension. However, in presenting the eight-step project as a form of systematization, in claiming that all philosophical problems can be reduced to an a priori/a posteriori conflict as an overgeneralization, in displaying inconsistency in the analysis of the problem of consciousness, and in attributing explanatory power to philosophical theories, he introduces tensions that at times steer his interpretation toward theoretical construction.
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From Protest to Commitment: The Evolution of Ethical Criticism in the Anti-Theodicy School
Eisa Mohammadinia
This article employs an analytical-historical method to examine the evolution of ethical criticism within the anti-theodicy school. It argues that this school has traversed a dynamic path from an initial protest against the theological justification of evil to the formulation of a concrete ethical-practical obligation. This transition is analyzed in four stages: first, the philosophical foundation laid by Phillips and the Wittgensteinians, critiquing the logical contradictions of theodicy; second, the ethical deepening of the critique through Surin's focus on radical evil and the concept of unforgivable moral blindness; third, the politicization of the critique in Tilley's thought, which presents theodicy as an ideological tool for justifying passivity; and fourth, the formulation of an alternative through Pihlström's pragmatist framework, which shifts the central question from "why?" to "what is to be done?" This research demonstrates that the anti-theodicy school not only deems the traditional theodicy project invalid but also opens new horizons for a committed, pragmatist theology that stands in solidarity with the victims of evil.
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Does the Theory-Ladenness of Observation Necessarily Entail Constructivism?
Habib Mamkarimmi , Mehri Mortazavi
The thesis of the theory-ladenness of observation claims that neutral, unbiased observation is impossible. Based on this thesis, some philosophers have inferred that facts—or more precisely, reality independent of mental influences—do not exist, and that human knowledge of the world is a social construct. The aim of this paper is to assess whether the theory-ladenness of observation necessarily entails a constructivist view, or whether it still allows us to speak about reality. To this end, the concepts of "theory-ladenness of observation" and "constructivism" will be clarified. It will then be argued that although the theory-ladenness of observation is acceptable, we are not compelled to adopt constructivism; rather, this thesis can provide an attractive framework for realist theses. Finally, some implications of this view for evaluating epistemological proposals will be indicated.
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Metaphysical Explanation as What Represents Grounding
Moallemi M.J.
Metaphysical explanation in contemporary metaphysics faces a profound conflict between the alleged objectivity of grounding relations and the mind-dependent features of explanation. This study explores the nature of the link between grounding and explanation, aiming to resolve the "inheritance problem"—i.e., how the properties of grounding are inherited from the properties of explanation—and the resulting methodological crisis within realist accounts. To this end, two primary frameworks, "Unionism" and "Separatism," are evaluated across five distinct realist and anti-realist versions. It is argued that traditional versions of realism fail to provide a consistent account of the relationship between objective reality and epistemic access. Ultimately, "Hybrid Separatism" is introduced as the preferred solution. By distinguishing between "explanation per se" (defined as that which represents grounding) and "successful explanation" (conceived as an epistemic act), this model offers a coherent framework that preserves the metaphysical objectivity of grounding without sacrificing its essential explanatory character.
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The Normativity of Logic and the Harman–MacFarlane Dispute: A Solution Based on Steinberger’s Three Normative Roles of Logic
Panahi S., Kalantari S.A., Karbasizadeh A.A.
The normativity of logic is a central topic in the philosophy of logic and epistemology, addressing the role of logic in structuring beliefs and guiding everyday reasoning. Within this framework, significant disagreements exist between proponents of this view, such as MacFarlane, and critics, such as Harman—disagreements that have become one of the most prominent debates in contemporary philosophy. This paper, drawing on Steinberger’s distinction among three normative roles of logic, shows that the dispute between Harman and MacFarlane is largely “verbal” in nature, rooted in a conflation of the distinct functions of logic. Nevertheless, while we accept Steinberger’s claim, we argue that by applying certain revisions to the criteria for assessing the normativity of logic—particularly regarding MacFarlane’s acceptable bridge principles—his position can be changed so as to remain resilient against Harman’s criticisms. In other words, we demonstrate that, contrary to Steinberger’s claim, the disagreement between Harman and MacFarlane is not merely formal, and the bridge principles governing the normativity of logic can be reconstructed in a way that protects them from Harman’s objections.
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Aristotelian and Modern Logic Approaches to “Copula”
Seyyed Mohammad Ali Hodjati
It is well known that in Aristotelian logic, the analysis of a categorical sentence is three-partite, i.e., “subject”, “predicate” and “copula”. In contrast, in modern logic- Fregean and Russellian- it is bipartite. i.e., “function” and “argument”. Although bipartite analysis is sometimes mentioned in some writings of Aristotelian logicians, scrutiny reveals that the copula is considered, even though it is hidden. It seems that this difference in their analysis is rooted in their approaches: the Aristotelian approach is linguistic, and the modern approach is semantical. In sum, we may say that the modern approach is more logical and has some consequences that are ignored in Aristotelian logic.
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The absurdity of Life and Suicide
M.M. Fallah
This article raises a claim different from the common attitude toward the relationship between the absurdity of life and suicide. In the common attitude, one believes that one commits suicide if and only if his life becomes absurd. This can be objected to in two ways: a priori and posterior. In the first path, to analyze this proposition, we should obtain a proper notion about the concepts of absurdity of life and suicide. After this clarification, we can reflect on the relation between these two concepts. In the second path, we should find two kinds of cases: (1) mentioning suicides that are committed by ones with meaningful lives, (2) considering some absurd lives which did not end up committing suicide. Thus, rejecting the aforementioned proposition a priori and posterior, we can mention new relations between life's absurdity and suicide. This article aims to first scrutinize accounts around death and second justifying lives worth living different from common attitudes around the meaningfulness of lives. In this article, we will only evaluate this contradiction by referring to western-christen thinkers, and we will show that unlike the common attitudes, suicide is not necessarily based on deep thoughts about life.
Graham Priest on Reconstruction of Hegel’s Logic and Metaphysics in Modern Logic
K. Farsian, S.M.A. Hodjati
In this paper, we will try to reconstruct Hegel’s logic and metaphysics through modern logic. Graham Priest has claimed that we can read Hegel’s logic with the paraconsistent approach to logic, specially Dialetheism; he calls Hegel a Dialetheist. At first, we report Priest’s account of Hegel’s dialectic and his notion of dialectical contradiction; also, we try to analyze Priest’s argument for calling Hegel a Dialetheist. To achieve the proper comparison between Hegel’s logic and Dialetic one, we explain, non-technically, the simple semantics of a Dialetic logic. Furthermore, finally, we establish a criticism of Priest’s account to reopen the question about Hegel’s being Dialetheist.
The Gabriel Marcel on Inauthenticity; a Critical Study
Z. Malakoutikhah, M.J. Safian
The notion of the characteristics of an ignoble human being in Gabriel Marcel's thought revolves around components such as establishing an I - s/he relationship with others, unpreparedness and unopenness in relations with others, and presence in the realm of having. To that end, it will become clear that by establishing an I-you relationship, being present to other human beings in the realm of being becomes noble, but by examining Marcel's ideas it became clear that the dominance of science and technology over human beings paved the way for the formation of a mass society and further, it intensifies the functional view of human, and as a result all these factors, increases the intensity and speed of ignobility of contemporary mankind. In this study, which aimed to explain the factors of nobelity and ignobility from Gabriel Marcel's point of view, it became clear that he believes to emerge from unoriginality. a human being should be able to freely choose, to accept responsibility, to communicate with the secret and to have characteristics such as love, loyalty, faith and hope.
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Analysis of Rorty's Point of View Regarding the Separation of the Private Sphere from the Public Sphere
N. Soleimani, A. Fath Taheri, Sh. Peyk Herfeh
Challenging the entire western philosophical tradition, which in his opinion has caused useless theoretical dualisms throughout the history of philosophy, Rorty wants to attempt to deconstruct and eliminate these dualisms in the context of redemptive literary culture. By creating a dividing line between the private and public spheres, Rorty wants to specify the contribution and involvement of philosophers in presenting theoretical and philosophical views and to say that the political sphere does not need to acquire foundations from the individual criteria of the private sphere. It is as if Rorty wants to prevent the philosopher's ambitions and interference with theorizing by reducing philosophy to literature. In fact, he believes in the distinction between private and public spheres or politics, the philosopher's tool is imagination and his intellectual sphere is literary culture and his place is the private sphere. Assuming the acceptance of pragmatic criteria, doesn't this division of a person in two completely different areas make him a dual personality? Can this intellectual stance be reasonable and acceptable?
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Could it be that the Burden of Proof is not on Theist?
H. Ghadiri, S.K. Vahabi
In his classic paper on the philosophy of religion entitled ‘The Presumption of Atheism’, Antony Flew, relying on a traditional legal rule, extracts a methodological rule according to which the burden of proof in the problem of God’s existence is non-restrictedly on the Theist. Here we argue that from another legal rule in Islamic jurisprudence, we can extract another methodological rule that, in contrast to Flew’s rule, is context-dependent; so, applying this new rule, we can imagine that in some situations, the burden of proof would be on atheist. Since there are some historical evidence for the relationship or even identification of that traditional rule and this Islamic rule, it could be concluded that Flew’s rules, too, should be context-dependence. Hence, his non-restricted claim about the burden of proof in the problem of God’s existence will be rejected.
The Requirement of Voluntary Act in Criminal Law and Attempts at Its Moral Justification
H. Mahboobi Arani
For a crime to be realized, the defendant is judged as a criminal with moral and legal liability, deserving to be punished properly; Anglo-American legal theory appeals to the Requirement of Voluntary Act (RVA), a necessary and comprehensive requisite. According to this requisite, the criminal act has consisted of Mens rea and Actus reus, with voluntary acts as the Actus reus in its restricted conception. Moral and legal philosophers have attempted to provide various moral explanations for the RVA, particularly utilizing theories of action philosophy. In this paper, I introduce the RVA as it is articulated in Anglo-American legal theory (in first two parts) and then illustrate and review five different possible moral rationales that could be deduced. Finally, I will conclude my paper with some hints about my preferable view and set forth questions concerning the very validity of such attempts at philosophically moral justification.
A critique on the belief of Wonder: the beginning of philosophy and arguing for Surprise: the origin of abductive inference
M. Zaker
The article’s main aim is to investigate the relationship between wonder and philosophical thoughts and between surprise and abductive thoughts. We critique the Platonic belief that philosophy begins from wonder and argue that the explanatory and normalizing function of knowledge in societies and naturalistic ontology neutralizes the astonishment and makes ineffective its impact on philosophical thoughts. In contrast, we argue that the genesis of philosophical thought is due to deep speculation and introspective temperament of the mind and skeptical exploration of the existing knowledge and beliefs. Abduction has been the recent research subject of various disciplines. Next, the paper is devoted to a new investigation of abductive inference, subjective abduction, and its relationship with the emotion of surprise and dramatic events. We explain this amazing mental ability regarding subjective estimation of probability and intuitive expectation. At last, some fallacies arising from abductive reasoning are discussed.
Application of Rumi and Gabriel Marcel's Views in Hope Therapy
N. Nazarnejad, F. Golshan Roghani, M. Shoaakazemi
The present study is interdisciplinary in applying philosophy through its collaboration with psychology and literature. This article examines hope according to the two great thinkers; Rumi, a Muslim mystic and writer, and Gabriel Marcel, a Christian existentialist philosopher. The purpose of this study is to provide a basis for the work of philosophical counselors and psychotherapists. For this reason, the views of Richard Snyder, the theorist and founder of hope therapy in contemporary psychology, are also introduced in the present study to bring Rumi and Marcel's views on hope closer to the topics of hope therapy, and the similarities are derived from being used by philosophical advisors. According to the findings of this research, the hope that Rumi speaks of is a clear and guiding hope that, if used properly, can become a positive moral trait in human beings; The hope that arises from man's need for God and will always be the way to man's spiritual progress. Marcel also considers hoping a tool for faith and closeness to the higher being, which causes a person to be spiritually ready to serve other human beings. This spiritual preparation frees man from the snare of the shattered world of which Marcel speaks. By comparing Snyder's theory of hope and Rumi's view of hope, we find similarities between the views of these two philosophers in the components of hope. The examination of Snyder's theory of hope and Marcel's view of hope also reveals the intellectual similarity of the two thinkers on the vital role of hope in life. Athir al-Dīn al-Abharī and some contemporaries on Conditional Logic
A. Fallahi
Athir al-Dīn al-Abharī was the only Avicennan logician who denied the validity of conditional syllogism. He was also the first who doubted in the validity of conversion and contraposition of conditionals and dispensed with them. In the contemporary era, after 1968, some logical consequence systems have evolved under the title ‘Conditional Logic’, which rejected the validity of the same rules. A similarity between al-Abharī’s system and these contemporary’s is in their commitment to Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens. Analyzing the reasons that the two groups provided for denying conditional syllogism reveals that their rejections were rooted in their novel interpretations of ‘strict conditional’. On al-Abjarī’s view, the strict conditional ‘whenever A then B’ means that ‘A implies B in all assumptions in which the implication between A and B is possible’. On the contemporary conditional logicians’ view, the conditional proposition ‘if A then B’ in natural languages means that ‘other things being equal, A implies B’. The two interpretations are common in the fact that in addition to the assumption of antecedent, they both assume matters which are somehow related to the antecedent, and this is the common root for both groups to deny the validity of conditional syllogism.
Cryptic Cosmology in the Mystical Stories of Sheikh Eshraq
A. Elyasi, M. Akhlaghi
Even today, Sheikh Eshraq's cryptic stories can be a great guide to us. In the sense that they can make human beings and show us the world around them. Because Sheikh in these stories regularly seek to represent the hierarchy of the universe and the position of the human in his proof that the human soul was the abstract light that originated in the set of existence. But the material body that belongs from the sacred universe has fallen to the darkness of the material universe, and it has been captured there. Then happiness comes back to its original itself. So, to identify more the main place soul of human speech in these cryptic stories, he has arranged the quadruple hierarchy of the universe based on the problem of the sulk and love between lights in the form of secret and the form of detailed that consist of universe wisdom, universe egos, objects, and purgatory universe and example universe among these factors Sheikh Eshraq emphasized the universe or imagination. It is the storytelling scene of his cryptic.
Some Remarks on Teaching Logic in Higher Education Institutions
M.M. Haeri
In different branches of science, the word 'logic' can denote different scientific activities. Logic courses taught in humanities departments and the ones taught in engineering departments only share similar course titles, several preliminary definitions, and examples. This raises the question about the nature of logic and the purpose for teaching it to students of different academic majors in higher education institutions. Normally, the answer would be that logic, similar to other courses, equips students with tools or skills they will need in their studies. But what are these tools and skills, and what is the best method for teaching them to students of different academic majors? This article aims to answer this question by examining the three major options: Aristotelian logic, first-order predicate classical logic, and informal logic. I try to demonstrate philosophical and psychological reasons in favor of teaching informal logic as the main material in introductory courses in logic, specifically introductory courses aimed at students who do not major in logic.
Source of the Contradiction in the Kripke Puzzle
M.A. Yousefi Poor
One of the most important issues in the reference section of the philosophy of language is the sense of the proper names. Two main figures in this discussion are Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege and John Stuart Mill. Frege has posed several puzzles against Mill's view. One of the puzzles is the puzzle of the belief context. the puzzle of the belief context implies that Mill's view of proper names is incorrect because it entails an account of the Substitution Principle (S) which is the origin of contradiction in the belief context. (S) is accounted in two ways. Frege shows in his puzzle that S1 is responsible for contradiction in belief context. Since Mill’s view entails S1, it is responsible for contradiction. But if Frege’s view of proper names is accepted, since the referent of proper names in belief context is identical with the sense of proper name in ordinal context, S2 which is more intuitive than S1 is not violated in any context. Kripke, a prominent advocate of Millie's view, shows the puzzle of the belief context can be reproduced even if Frege's view of the sense of the proper names is accepted. He designs his first puzzle by two intuitionally true principles (Disquotation and Translation), and designs his second puzzle by only Disquotation Principle. David Sosa, a proponent of Frege's view, claims that He has been able to revive Frege's puzzle against Mill, which Kripke believes he was able to neutralize with two similar puzzles. On his opinion, intuitionally true Hermeneutic principle is violated in the context of belief only if Millian view is accepted. In this paper, after explaining Sosa's proposal, a concern have been proposed about it. The concern is related to the analytical nature of line 7 of Frege’s puzzle, line of 8 of Kripke’s first puzzle, and line of 7 of Kripke’s second puzzle. Sosa believes that these lines are analytic. Nevertheless, according to the scenario of puzzles, being analytic of these lines is not clear. Because of this unclarity, Steinberg claims that these lines are responsible for contradiction.
Intelligible Forms, Inherence and the Materiality of the Soul
A. Zadyousefi
According to Avicenna's theory of knowledge, intellectual knowledge in human beings is explained via the inherence of intelligible forms in the soul. In this paper, I will show that the inherence of intelligible forms in the soul is at odds with the soul's immateriality.
Murphy’s Holistic Physicalism on Mind Problem
S. Abdollahi, M. Nasiri
Based on the interaction between science and religion, Nancy Murphy turns to a special version of non-transitive physicalism that uses empirical science, physicalism, and the Bible to formulate her holistic physicalism; A middle position between essential dualism and illusionism that defines humans as spiritual beings and hides the problem of the mind within it. Murphy brings the soul into holistic physicalism with his theological assumptions and not with scientific evidence and philosophical arguments. The distinguishing feature of non-transmission physicalism from transmission physicalism is the attention to the explanatory gap in the issue of supervenience. Holistic physicalism has not filled this gap and has only changed the form of the problem from explaining the relationship between human parts to explaining the relationship between human dimensions. Therefore, combining the universal and weak perceptions of supervenience, along with the positive and negative teachings of holistic physicalism, that is, the use of pure holistic physicalism and avoiding introducing theological presuppositions in a philosophical theory, can be used to solve the problem.
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Explaining the Ontological Differences between Islamic Transcendent Philosophy and Emergentism on the Soul-Body Problem
M. Toossi Saeidi, S.H. Hosseini
Emergentism bears similarities to the Islamic Transcendent Philosophy about the relationship between the soul and the body. At the same time, despite these similarities, there seem to be fundamental differences in the ontological picture of these two. The main issue of this paper is to identify these differences. The result of this effort can be summarized as saying that the ontological foundations of Emergentism are consistent with scientific findings, while this is not the case with Transcendent Philosophy, and that there are fundamental differences between the ontological picture of Transcendent Philosophy and Emergentism in relation to the soul and the body relation; Differences rooted in the contradiction between the classical or Aristotelian image of the world and the new scientific image of the that.
Phronesis and its Relationship with Theoretical Wisdom According to Aristotle
H. Roshani Rad
In Nicomachean ethics, Aristotle divides the soul into two fundamental parts, the knowing part and the calculating part, the virtue of the first part is theoretical wisdom (Sophia) and the virtue of the second part is practical wisdom (Phronesis). This distinction is based on the ontological distinction between becoming and stability because the subject of practical wisdom is the realm of changeable affairs and the subject of theoretical wisdom is eternal affairs. In this research, we will first show that the intuitive intellect or Nous is the connecting factor of these two realms: Nous receives the ultimate principles from both sides, in the framework of theoretical knowledge, Nous knows the most general concepts of eternity and in the framework of Practical wisdom receives the partial individual. We will also argue that practical wisdom is the agent of realization of theoretical wisdom: Phronesis is the power of receiving the highest good, that is, the life according to the Sophia. The interpretation of the relationship between Phronesis and Sophia as a “necessary – end” suggests a way out of two conflicting interpretations of Aristotle’s ethics- the rationalist and holistic interpretation of happiness – which we will address.
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A Critical Look on Polkinghorne's Point of View; Insufficiency of Uncertainty Principles in Physics to Explain Divine Agency
F. Barzegar Tabrizi, S.M.A. Dibaji
In the philosophy of religion, Divine Agency has been related to how God does his action in the human world and the physical world. Polkinghorne has presented a particular method to answer this question. His theological approach has been a combination of Classical Theology and Process Theology. On the one hand, he has said that the God defined in Classical Theology is too unavailable, and on the other hand, he has criticized the Process approach to God. Polkinghorne has established that Epistemology is equal to Ontology, and based on this fact, he has explained his Critical Realism. In his view, the guaranty of reality is not to understand it but is its objectivity. Uncertain situations in Modern Physics presented in Einsteinian Relativity, Quantum Theory, and Chaos Theory is the main areas Polkinghorne has constructed his specific theory about Divine Agency on them.
Analytic Thomism; History, Challenges, and Lessons
S.M. Eslami
Thomism has had a continuous history from the 13th century, and some think it is unique in this regard. Each time, it experienced different forms and took different approaches, as in the twentieth century, there are also transcendental Thomists and existentialist Thomists. However, it took longer for analytic philosophy and Thomism to have interaction, and it did not happen until the attempts by Peter Geach, Elizabeth Anscombe, and Anthony Kenny. Then, in the 1990s, John Haldane, drawing on these works, coined the term Analytic Thomism. Here I explore this movement by focusing on some of its aspects. First, we will see the historical phases of Thomism. Then, we review the roots of analytic Thomism as we know it now. After looking at some examples of the works done in this tradition, some challenges for analytic Thomism are presented and discussed. By way of conclusion, a few remarks about “Analytic Islamic philosophy” are discussed.
The Problem of Emanation in Farabi; From Aristotelian- to Independent Works
H. Ahmadizade
Surveying the problem of emanation in Farabi's view, has some difficulties like that does for Farabi this problem is a fundamental problem in metaphysics or a secondary one? In this issue we are confronted with two main difficulties: one is that some scholars doubted to two Farabi's works that he discussed there the problem of emanation, mean Fosus Al-hekam and Ouoon Al-masael. They cannot say that these two books certainly are Farabi's books. But the more difficult problem is that Farabi's views on the problem of emanation are different in his works. It seem that some of Farabi's books are basically written in the Aristotelian context and some of his books are from his personally views. In addition, there is another difficulty: Farabi discussed the problem of emanation in some of his books that are not basically metaphysical but are psychological. In the present article, we try to survey these difficulties in Farabi's works.
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Effect of Propositions Division into Actuality, Mental and Factual on the Conditions of Some Syllogisms; Based on the Opinion of Contemporaries
A. Darabi
Throughout the texts of contemporary logicians, it has been explicitly or implicitly stated that the division of propositions into actuality, mental and factual, has no effect on logical syllogisms. In the following text, first, by analyzing the opinions of contemporaries on the division of propositions into actuality, mental and factual, the differences and similarities of the opinions in this regard have been identified. Then we examine the position of the conditional's quantifier and its effect on the conditions of conditional-categorical syllogisms (conjunctive or exceptive) in the opinions of contemporary logicians. In the final step and based on the conditions of conditional-categorical syllogisms (conjunctive or exceptive), we have shown that some of the moods that most contemporaries have declared to be valid have counter-examples, and only with the factual of the categorical premises in all situations and for all samples will result.
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